1. The Title

   Many refer to these three pastoral letters (to Titus and Timothy) as "epistles." Yet they have the format of a letter, with a beginning that identifies the sender and the recipient, and (with the exception of 1 Tim) a conclusion that presents greetings and a blessing. As for the term "pastoral," it has been applied to them since the early 18th century to recognize their central concern - no longer the missionary expansion that dominated the early years of Christianity, but the care of evangelized communities after the missionaries have left, either geographically or by their death. It is a care that we recognize as "pastoral". This term is appropriate in another way, for an important theme in Titus and 1 Tim is the structure or order of the church, that is, the appointment of leaders to administer the Christian community; and often we refer to these figures as "pastors." If the NT symbolism for the missionary is the fisher(man), the symbol for the one who guides and feeds those won over by the missionary is the shepherd (or pastor in Latin).

2. Interrelation from the Viewpoint of Order

   On the whole, they are very homogeneous in terms of style and atmosphere. A logical inference is that the same person wrote them, otherwise, if X wrote one and Y the others, Y went to great lengths to imitate X. Nevertheless, important scholars have objected that treating the three texts as a group has blinded interpreters to their individual differences. In particular, there is a growing insistence that at least 2 Tim deserves separate consideration.

   With respect to genre, some compare Titus and I Tim to the Didache (ca. AD 100-120), an early church manual that also contains warnings against false teachers and prophets. The genre of the ecclesiastical manual is also well attested later (Didascalia Apostolorum, Apostolic Constitutions); but this comparison may be questioned, for the Pastorals do not give detailed guidelines for the functioning of the ecclesiastical order. 2 Tim does not deal with the ecclesiastical order, and Titus does so only in summary form. Other biblical scholars have seen deliberative, parenetic rhetoric in the letters to Titus and 1 Tim, while 2 Tim would be an example of demonstrative, epidemic rhetoric. Or some would see various techniques of exhortation in the Pastorals and a parallel with the Socratic and pseudo-Socratic letters. We shall see that 2 Tim has the atmosphere of a farewell speech; moreover, it presents certain parallels with the captivity letters, i.e. Phil, Phlm, Col and Eph written since the imprisonment.

   A major question is the order in which they were composed. The present canonical order (1-2 Tim, Titus), which is simply a descending order of length, does not allow us to determine this. If the letters are pseudepigraphic, we must be cautious about making judgments based on their content, since some of the details may not be historical. From what is reported, the situation of the church envisaged in Titus is less established and detailed than that envisaged in 1 Tim; and since the letters claim to be addressed to different geographical destinations (Crete and Ephesus respectively), perhaps the churches in the eastern Mediterranean were not all at the same stage of development. Yet similar church development does not necessarily tell us which letter was written first. Paul's death is envisaged as near in 2 Tim; and so logically, if he wrote all three, he probably wrote the last one. However, 2 Tim does not deal with the same structural issues as Titus and 1 Tim, so it is not inconceivable that 2 Tim was written first (perhaps by Paul) and that after his death an unknown author composed Titus and 1 Tim, imitating the style of 2 Tim in order to deal with issues of church structure that had become acute. In short, any order of composition is possible. But since we usually start by taking the letters literally, the order Titus (less developed church structure), 1 Tim (more developed church structure), 2 Tim (Paul dying) is quite appropriate. Moreover, this order, attested in the Fragment of Muratori (late 2nd century) and Ambrosiaster (4th century), is probably the oldest.

Although the meaning of the letter does not depend on knowledge of Titus' career, in the NT, Titus (never mentioned in Acts) is described as having been converted by Paul and brought to the Jerusalem assembly in 49 AD (Gal 2:1-3) to demonstrate how an uncircumcised Gentile could be a true Christian. In the crisis between Paul and the church in Corinth, where Paul had been publicly embarrassed during his "painful visit", Titus carried the letter written "in tears" from Ephesus to Corinth. He succeeded in effecting a diplomatic reconciliation, so that he brought Paul in Macedonia good news from Corinth (c. 56-57: 2 Cor 2:1; 7:6-16). Later he was sent to Corinth to collect the collection that Paul was to take to Jerusalem in 58 (2 Cor 8:6,16,23; 12:17-18).

The present letter assumes that Paul was in Crete with Titus and that he left him there to correct anything that was still defective, especially to appoint presbyters in every Christian community (Titus 1:5). It is not specified where Paul was when he wrote the letter, although the coast of Asia Minor (Ephesus) and Greece (Macedonia or Achaia) are locations that would correspond to his plan to spend the winter in Nicopolis, most likely the city of western Greece (3:12). Four people are mentioned in Titus 3:12-13, two of whom (Artemas, Zenas) are otherwise unknown. Tychicus, a native of Asia Minor, is mentioned in Acts 20:4-5 as having accompanied Paul when he left Corinth on his way to Jerusalem, via Macedonia and Troas, from where he left via Ephesus. He is also mentioned as the messenger of Col (4:7-9) and Eph (6:21-22), letters written from a place of captivity, perhaps Ephesus. Apollos, who in his travels would pass through Crete, was last heard from in Ephesus when Paul sent 1 Cor (16:12). These details might tip the balance slightly in favor of the Ephesus area as the real or imagined place from which Paul writes to Titus; and if the composition of the Pastorals implies a sequence, it would be after Paul left Ephesus and went to Macedonia that he would have written 1 Tim (1:3).

Nothing in Paul's career recounted in Acts or in the other Pauline letters (apart from the Pastorals) corresponds to the details related in the preceding paragraph. According to these sources, Paul's only visit to Crete took place during the voyage that brought him as a prisoner to Rome around 61; the ship stopped at Fair Havens and sailed along the coast of Crete, only to be driven back by a storm (Acts 27:7-14). Rom 15:19 tells us that Paul was in Illyricum in 58 AD, but that after this visit he spent the winter in Corinth. Most scholars who accept that Paul is the author of Titus, or at least that the details given in Titus are accurate, postulate a "second career" of the apostle in the mid-60s, during which he was released after his two-year captivity in Rome recorded in Acts 28:30 (AD 61-63) and returned to the East, including Crete, Ephesus and Nicopolis. The 2nd letter to Timothy is integrated into this theory so that Paul's second career ends with a new Roman captivity and execution in 65-67.

1. Opening Formula: 1: 1-4

   This is both long and formal; indeed, only Romans, written to a community that Paul had never visited, has a significantly longer formula. Is it plausible that Paul needed to introduce himself in this way to a disciple who had known him for years? Many scholars answer in the negative, using this inconsistency to question Paul's writing and even proposing that we be given here an introduction to the three Pastorals intended as a pseudepigraphical corpus. Others explain this formality by the fact that, although addressed to Titus, the letter was intended to serve as a public support for Titus in the performance of a difficult task as Paul's delegate, and was therefore to be read aloud in the churches. Since one of the major concerns is to preserve the faith of the Christians in Crete, Paul is shown from the beginning to insist that one of the duties of an apostle is to care for the faith of God's elect.

2. Body:
   1. 1: 5-9: First theme: Church structure or order

      This is a main theme of the Pastorals (or at least of Titus and especially 1 Tim), as recognized by one of the earliest references to these texts. The Muratori fragment (late 2nd century) says that, although they were written from personal feelings and affections, these letters are held in honor in the Catholic Church with regard to the ecclesiastical order. This order is a concern of Titus because of the danger presented by false teachers. The letter tells us that during his stay in Crete, Paul had not established a fixed structure, so he now entrusts this task to Titus who had remained after Paul's departure. 1 Tim envisions an organized community under the leadership of presbyters/bishops and deacons, while Titus mentions only the appointment of presbyters/bishops. The qualifications required of these figures were to ensure that they would provide leadership faithful to Paul's teaching and thus protect the faithful from innovations, as we will see in a subsection below.

   2. 1: 10-16: Second theme: false teaching

      Titus is addressing a pressing danger. However, the description of the teachers is phrased polemically and it is only with difficulty that one can discern between accurate information and a vague generalization. Thus, it is difficult to diagnose teaching from the assertions that opponents are insubordinate, idle talkers who must be silenced, deceivers who upset households, teachers who work for profit, with corrupt minds and consciences - people who deny God by their actions, who are vile, disobedient, and unfit for any good deed. The quotation from Epimenides of Knossos (6th century B.C.) in Titus 1:12, vilifying the Cretans as liars and lazy, suggests that the false teachers are from Crete; yet the description of the false teachers of Ephesus in 1 Tim 1:3-11 is no different.

      Christians of Jewish descent ("those of the circumcision") are under fire in Titus 1:10, and the implication that they follow man-made rules declaring things unclean (1:15) may favor the thesis that they used their strict traditions to interpret the Mosaic law (see Mark 7:8). However, the significance of the Jewish myths/fables in 1:14 is not clear. Are they developments in the Jewish apocrypha, which emphasize calendrical details and the role of angels? Or are they Jewish Gnostic speculations about human origins? The statement that the teachers profess to know God (1:16) could point in the latter direction. Do the elements pointing in both directions suggest that the author was dealing with a syncretism that combined Jewish and Gnostic elements? The vagueness of what is described warns us of the uncertainty of any judgment that would date Titus to the middle of the second century because he is addressing a fully developed Gnosticism. Indeed, the description that touches so many areas while remaining vague could have been intended to make this letter (and also 1 Tim) applicable to any foreseeable false teacher that might arise.

   3. 2: 1 - 3: 11: Third theme: Community relations and belief

      This theme occupies about two-thirds of Titus. The first section (2:1-10) is a domestic code of which we have seen examples in Col 3:18 - 4:1 and Eph 5:21 - 6:9. These were carefully divided into counsels for three pairs, the submissive component being mentioned first: wives/husbands, children/fathers, slaves/masters. The pattern here is less regular: old men / old women, young women / young men / slaves. Moreover, it is not about the relationship between older men and older women, but about the general edifying behavior of both and the training of their younger counterparts. Yet in 2:4-5, where wives are told to love and be submissive to their husbands, and in 2:9, where slaves are told to be submissive to their masters, Titus comes close to Col and Eph's domestic codes. The requirement of sober and dignified behavior, similar to that imposed on presbyters in 1:7-9, is linked to sound doctrine and is intended to embellish the teaching of God our Savior (2:10), so that Christian belief and lifestyle should be uniform. (By linking their behavior to Christian belief and doctrine, Cretan Christians could differentiate their conduct from similar behavior that might be inculcated by Greek philosophers simply as a more rational way of life.)

      In 2:11 - 3:11, with proselytizing interest, the author gives pastoral instructions based on what Christ has done. Before conversion, Christians were foolish and disobedient, slaves to passion (3:3); but the "great God and our Savior Jesus Christ" gave himself to redeem and purify a people of his own, zealous for good deeds (2:13-14) - indeed, for the salvation of all (2:11; see also 3:4-7, which could be a hymn). In his undisputed letters, Paul presented himself as a model to be imitated (Phil 3:17). He repeats this in the Pastorals (1 Tim 1:16; 2 Tim 1:13), and now he wants the Christians in Crete to be models (Titus 2:7) to draw others into the faith. Part of this model of good deeds will be to be submissive to the rulers and authorities (3:1) and to be courteous to all, including strangers (3:2). Nothing is more damaging to such a public image than foolish dissension and quarrels among Christians (3:9-10).

3. Concluding Formula: 3: 12-15

   The minimal greetings refer to a companion, Tychicus, who is sent to the recipients as in Col 4:7-8.

1. In each community, presbyters were to be appointed. Normally, as the designation presbyteroi (an adjectival noun comparative to "old," presbys, hence "elders") indicates, these were older, experienced men in the community. In ancient times, sixty years was often the recognized age for becoming an old man or woman (see 1 Tim 5:9); however, the age of "elders" was certainly not calculated so precisely. Moreover, a younger man, particularly notable for his good judgment, could be considered "old" for his wisdom. The Christian presbyters were to have two broad general functions. First, apparently as a group, they were to give direction to the community as a whole, for example by guiding political decisions and overseeing finances. The relationship of a presbyter to an individual house church is not clear; but presbyters presided over the whole community and thus perhaps a group of house churches. Second, they were to exercise a pastoral or mentoring function over individual Christians in matters of belief and moral practice. In the Jewish synagogue, groups of elders performed the first, more general task, and the Christian presbyteral structure was influenced by this model.

2. In the Pastorals, "overseer, bishop" (episkopos) is another title for presbyteros (hence "presbyter/bishop"), especially in the second function of pastoral care of individuals. Because in Titus and 1 Tim, presbyteros is used in the plural and episkopos only in the singular, some have thought that the structure implies a presbyter among the others who serves as a bishop or overseer in relation to the whole community. This is most likely a misinterpretation: The episkopos in the singular in Titus 1:7, after "any" of the presbyters in 1:5-6, is generic, describing what every presbyter/bishop should be (likewise 1 Tim 3:1-2). Thus, we can speak of presbyters/bishops in the communities envisaged by Titus and 1 Tim with reasonable confidence that there was a supervisory group rather than a solitary overseer/bishop - the latter being a development attested only later. However, it is clear from 1 Tim (5:17: perhaps a more developed church structure than Titus, with greater specification of tasks) that not all presbyters exercised the same kind of pastoral supervision, as only some preached and taught. In 1 Tim, there are guidelines for communal worship (2:8-10); the silence about the presbyter(s) presiding over the liturgy is probably not accidental - it was probably not one of their duties. Moreover, the Pastorals do not compare the role of presbyters/bishops (and deacons in 1 Tim) to the model of Christ (and the apostles) or to that of the sacred order of priests (and Levites) in the OT. It is therefore difficult to speak of a hierarchy. Nor is this structure the object of an explicit theology, although in the author's mind it undoubtedly contributed to making the Church of the living God a pillar and bulwark of truth (1 Tim 3:15).

3. Prior to appointment, the qualifications of potential presbyters/bishops should be carefully considered. We have seen that 1 Corinthians 12:28 describes administrative ability as a charism or gift of the Spirit, just as Romans 12:6-8 counts "presiding over others" as a charism. There is no indication in the Pastorals that ipso facto a person who had (or claimed to have) the charism of administration or presidency would be recognized as a presbyter/bishop. Presumably, if a person qualified and was appointed presbyter/bishop, that appointment would have been considered to be under the guidance of the Spirit, but this is never stated, so the structure of the Pastorals is often contrasted with charismatic leadership.

   To probe this contrast, let us list, from Titus 1:6-9 (and, to avoid repetition, from 1 Tim 3:1-7), the qualities and qualifications expected of the presbyter/bishop. We can distinguish four categories (*=qualities shared by Titus and 1 Tim, italics=only mentioned by 1 Tim):

   1. Negative descriptions of disqualifying behavior or attitudes: not arrogant; not quick-tempered, not violent*, not quarrelsome, not a heavy drinker*, not greedy for gain, not loving money

   2. Positive descriptions of desired virtues and abilities: faultless, above reproach, hospitable*, gentle, loving good, devout, just, showing good sense*, self-controlled, sober, dignified

   3. Life-situation to be expected of a public figure who would be setting a standard for the community: he has been married only once*; his children are believers; they are not loose-living or insubordinate; he is not a recent convert

   4. Skills related to the work to be done: he has agood reputation with outsiders; he manages well his own household; he is an adept teacher; he holds fast the trustworthy word which accords with the teaching of sound doctrine.

   The qualifying virtues described in (a) and (b) are sometimes called institutional: they would result in the selection of one or more presbyters or bishops whom a congregation could love, admire and live with. These qualifications lack dynamic momentum and would not be inclined to produce world-changing leaders. It has sometimes been humorously pointed out that Paul himself might have had difficulty meeting these criteria, for, judging by Gal, he could be short-tempered and lacking in dignity in his language. But Paul was an apostle and missionary, not a residential bishop. He was a character whose restless dynamism might have displeased people if he had tried to stay and oversee a church for a decade.

   The requirements of point (c) move the Pastorals away from a charismatic approach to ministry. A person with outstanding leadership abilities (which could be considered a Spirit-given charism) would not be eligible for the office of presbyter/bishop if his or her children were not Christians - a situation that could have occurred frequently among mid-life converts. Why this ineligibility? Because as the leader of the community, his family life was to be an ideal example for the community.

4. In 1:5 Titus is told to appoint presbyters in Crete, but we are not told how the continuity of presbyters will be preserved after his departure. There are already presbyters in Ephesus, and no clear indication is given in 1 Tim as to how this happened. Regardless of how the appointment or selection took place, was there an act of designation that, in the language of the late church, could have been considered an ordination? Some appeal to 1 Tim 4:14, "Do not neglect the gift [charisma] you have within you, which was given to you by prophecy with the laying on of hands through the presbytery," and understand this verse as making Timothy a presbyter; but we have no other evidence of Timothy in this role. According to another interpretation of the verse, the laying on of hands would be directed to Timothy's general mission, just as 2 Tim, which never mentions presbyters, traces Timothy's spiritual gift to Paul's laying on of hands (1:6-7). More useful might be 1 Tim 5:22 where, in a passage immediately following the discussion of the behavior of the elders, Timothy is admonished not to be hasty in laying on hands or participating in the sins of others. This could describe an action in the appointment of elders, but some interpret it as a reference to the absolution of sinners. On the general basis of later church history and Jewish practices regarding rabbis, one might strongly suspect that at the time of the writing of the Pastorals, presbyters were installed by the laying on of hands. Yet, again, we may doubt the uniformity that still prevailed in the Christian churches.

1. The question of whether or not Paul wrote the Pastoral Letters will be left to the next chapter on 1 Tim. One factor that enters into the discussion is whether the style and vocabulary are Pauline. To get an idea of the problem, we can take the first chapter of Titus as an example. The characteristics found in the undisputed Pauline writings are: the reference to God's elect (1:1; only Paul in the NT); the divine plan of salvation in Christ that exists from all eternity or before creation (1:2-3); the fact that Paul was commissioned to manifest it through preaching (1:3); and the greeting of grace and peace (1:4). The characteristics not found in the other Pauline letters (apart from the Pastorals) are the following: Paul as a servant of God (1:1); "the knowledge of the truth" (1:1, though Paul uses both names separately); "God our Savior" (1:3); the officials known as presbyters (cf. "bishops" in Phil 1:1); several of the qualifications in 1:7-8 (not arrogant, not hot-tempered, not violent, not excessive drinkers, not greedy for gain, hospitable, loving the good, showing good sense, godly, self-controlled); the phrase "sound doctrine" (1:9); and some of the descriptions of the opponents in 1:10 (and 1:16, insubordinate, gossipy, deceitful, defiled, base). The evaluation of such evidence is always a dubious point, for Paul could have given considerable freedom to a scribe. Here, however, most scholars postulate an author other than Paul.

2. In the Pastorals, the emphasis is on sound doctrine (Titus 1:9; 2:1; 1 Tim 1:10; 2 Tim 4:3) and knowledge of the truth (Titus 1:1; 1 Tim 2:4; 2 Tim 2:25; 3:7), as well as being solid in the faith (Titus 1:13; 2:2), keeping sound words (1 Tim 6:3; 2 Tim 1:13), and feeding on "the word of faith" (1 Tim 4:6 - a non-Pauline expression). It is clear that a certain content and phraseology had become part of Christian belief. Although some have argued that for the early Christians faith meant only trust in Jesus or the belief that he was sent by God, some passages in the NT show us that Christological content soon came into play, namely the belief in who Jesus was/is. For example, see Romans 1:3-4 for a pre-Pauline Christology that can be traced back to the early 40s. However, in the last third of the first century (at least), Christians began to insist on greater precision in the expression of Christology, since there could be different understandings of early formulations. In Matthew 16:16; 26:63, it is not enough to state that Jesus is the Christ (Messiah), but that he is the Christ in such a way that he is truly the Son of God. Thus, doctrine is part of faith. The Pastorals reflect what will become more and more characteristic of Christianity from the 2nd to the 4th century: an ever stronger insistence on orthodoxy (correct content of the faith), combined with orthopraxy (correct behavior).

3. A question has been raised about the modern application of the instructions given in the domestic codes. This question is exacerbated by elements of prejudice evident in the code of Titus (2:1-10). The dangers of backbiting and excessive wine drinking are mentioned only in reference to older women. The duties of slaves are recounted, including a warning against pilfering; but nothing is said to masters in a relationship where society was less likely to curb the oppressive potential of masters than to punish slaves. It can be argued that this omission is due to the fact that relatively few Christians in Crete were masters, but this does not solve the problem posed by such a code in a later era when it might give the impression that Christianity favored those of higher social or economic status. Other passages in the NT should be read as a corrective.

4. There is a hymnal description of salvation and baptism in 3:4-7 which is called "a sure (faithful) word" (3:8) and which may imply an earlier tradition. Many of the ideas it contains (e.g., freedom by grace, renewal, bathing) are Pauline or Deutero-Pauline (Rom 3:24; 12:2; Eph 5:26), but rebirth is not used elsewhere by Paul. Some might draw this image from Stoicism or the mystery religions; but the idea that acceptance of Christ is so important that it can be seen as a new birth (of God) has special significance in the context of Judaism, where the birth of a Jewish parent (mother) made one a member of God's chosen people. See Mt 19:28 for the word, and John 3:3-8 and 1 Pet 1:3.23 for the idea.