It cannot be denied that the Old Testament background greatly influenced the Christian writing of the passion narratives, in order to provide a dramatic narrative framework for the elements of Christian preaching. In particular, in the secondary passion material that was not part of the core of Christian preaching and that could be debated in the synagogues, Christians gave free rein to their imagination (e.g., the death of Judas inspired by the death of OT figures such as Ahithophel or Antiochus Epiphanes). Our interest in this section will focus on the OT books that were most influential in the writing of the passion narratives.

The passion narratives refer to the OT in different ways, either by an implicit allusion without using the vocabulary, or explicitly with the stereotypical formula: "All this happened so that the word of Scripture might be fulfilled...". It must also be taken into account that reference to the OT in the Jewish world is also made through its midrashic development, as can be seen with the account of Herod and the child Jesus in Matthew based on the midrashic development of the birth of Moses.

1. Passion Parallels in the Old Testament in General
   1. The Pentateuch
      1. First, there is Gen 22:1-14, the story of Abraham's trial when God asks him to sacrifice his son and he is faithful. This story is certainly implied by Rom 8:32 (God who did not spare his own son) and 1 Jn 4:9-10 (God who sends his son as an atoning sacrifice). But it is not certain that the midrah of Aqedah was sufficiently developed at the time of writing the passion narratives to have influenced them.

      2. The text of Exodus 12 describes the ritual of the Passover meal with the sprinkling of the lamb's blood on the doorposts so that the exterminating angel would spare the Jewish children. The synoptic gospels present Jesus' last meal as a Passover meal. John, on the other hand, explicitly presents Jesus as the lamb of God and associates his condemnation with the moment when the lamb was slain in the temple, just as he associates the fact that his bones were not broken with the requirements for the lamb in Ex 12:46.

      3. We could add Num 21:9 with the scene of the bronze serpent raised to bring healing to which Jn 3:14-15 refers.

   2. Historical Books

      Since Jesus was believed to be a descendant of David, the last difficult moments of the king, as narrated in 2 Sam 15:13-37; 17:23, could be associated with Jesus. Thus, Judas was associated with the figure of Ahithophel who joined the enemies, Jesus' crossing of the Kidron (Jn 18:1) with David's, the prayer on the Mount of Olives with David's going up to the same place to weep, Judas' death with Ahithophel who committed suicide, Jesus' request to spare his disciples (Jn 18:8b) with David's call to his troops to avoid bloodshed and wait for him in Jerusalem.

      Some biblical scholars have suggested the influence of the martyrdom of the Maccabean brothers (2 Macc 6:16-7:42; 4 Macc 5:1-18:23).

   3. Prophetical Books
      1. Isaiah

         In Acts 8:32-33 Philip explains to the Ethiopian eunuch the passage from Isa 53:7-8 (the sheep being led to the slaughter). It is the figure of the suffering servant (Isa 42:1-4; 49:1-7; 50:4-11; 52:13-53:12) that has had the greatest influence on Christian thinking about the death of Jesus. Thus, 1 Pet 2:22-24 refers to Isa 53:9b (he committed no sin...). The theme of Jesus being handed over (paradidomai) reflects that of the servant who was handed over (Isa 53, 6.12). According to Mk 9:12, the scripture had announced the sufferings of the son of man, an echo of Isa 53:3 where the servant is despised and rejected, just as Mk 8:17 specifies that Jesus fulfills the words of Isa 53:4 where the servant is presented as the one who takes upon himself our infirmities, and Mk 14:65 with the mockery of Jesus alludes to Isa 50:6-7, when the servant is struck on the cheeks and spat upon.

      2. Jeremiah

         The structure of the book of Jeremiah with its prophetic words and actions, and the story of his suffering and rejection may have influenced the idea of writing a similar story around Jesus. For example, ch. 26 presents a plot by the priests, prophets and all the people against Jeremiah who announces the destruction of the city and its temple, and warns against shedding innocent blood, a language found in Matthew. In the influences we can add the Lamentations of Jeremiah as the passers-by shake their heads at the afflicted daughter of Jerusalem (Lam 2:15) or as the Lord's faithful turn their cheeks to the one who strikes them (Lam 3:28-20), which is found in Mk 15:29 and Mt 27:39.

      3. Ezekiel

         We note the influence of Ezek 37:12-13 ("I will open your tombs...") on the scene in Mt 27:52-23 as the tombs are opened and the bodies of many saints are raised.

      4. Daniel

         Dan 7:13 presents Daniel's vision of a son of man coming on the clouds of heaven, and this image will be combined with the image of the session at the right hand of Ps 110:1 in Mk 14:12 ("You will see the son of man sitting at the right hand...") to describe Jesus' announcement of his future during his trial before the high priest. The Sanhedrin's accusation of blasphemy against Jesus could be an echo of the blasphemy of the Beast in Dan 7:20. Finally, the announcement in Dan 12:2 that "many of those who sleep in the dusty ground will awaken" is echoed in Mt 27:52-53.

      5. Minor prophets
         First of all, there is Am 8:9 ("I will make the sun go down at noon and darken the earth in the daytime"), which influenced Mk 15:33 ("At noon, there was darkness over the whole earth until three o'clock"). But it is above all the prophet Zechariah who has been taken up in several passages of the passion narrative: Zechariah 13:17 ("Strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered") is quoted in Mk 14:27 ("I will strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered"); Zechariah 9:9 ("lowly, riding on a donkey, on a colt that is young") shaped the story of Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Mk 11:1-10); Zech 14:21 ("There will be no more merchants in the house of the Lord") is the background to the scene of the cleansing of the temple (Mk 11:15-19; Jn 2:16); Zech 9:11 ("for the sake of the covenant made with you in blood") is echoed at Jesus' last supper; Zech 11:12-13 ("they paid my wages: thirty shekels of silver... I took the thirty shekels of silver and threw them to the smelter in the House of the Lord") is the basis for the story of Judas and the thirty pieces of silver (Mt 27:2-10); Zech 12:10 ("Then they will look to me, the one they pierced") receives an echo in Jn 19:34. 37 ("They will see him whom they have pierced").

   4. Wisdom or Sapiential Books

      Pr 31:6 ("Let the one who is about to perish be given liquor and the one who is bitter be given wine") serves as a background to Mk 15:23 ("they gave him wine mixed with gall to drink"). The second chapter of the book of Wisdom (mid-first century BC) describes the fate of the righteous (2:15 "For his life is not like that of others..."; 2:18 "If the righteous man is a son of God, then he will come to his aid...") is echoed in the passion narrative, especially in Mt 27:43: "He has put his trust in God; let God now deliver him, if he loves him". In the book of Wisdom, being a son of God and "the righteous one" are equivalent, which helps to understand the confession of the centurion ("son of God" in Mk 15:39 and "righteous one" in Lk 23:47).

2. Passion Parallels in the Psalms

   Several psalms offer parallels to elements of the passion narrative, but these elements are secondary details. Moreover, in seeking to flesh out the basic structure of the passion narrative, the early Christians did not do a verse-by-verse reading of any of the psalms, as can be seen in the Qumran pesharim on the psalms.

   1. Proposed Psalm Parallels (except Ps 22) for the Passion

      Parallels are sometimes very general and hypothetical, but when they are highly possible and probable, they are highlighted in bold.

      • Ps 2: 1-2 (LXX): "Wherefore did the heathen rage, and the nations imagine vain things? The kings of the earth stood up, and the rulers gathered themselves (synagein) together, against the Lord, and against his Christ". This psalm is quoted in Acts 4:25-27 in reference to King Herod and the ruler Pilate. This is how Luke introduced the character of Herod (Lk 23:6-12). Other passages use the image of "gathering together" against Jesus (Mt 26:3.57; 27:17.62; Lk 22:66).

      • Ps 18: 7 "he heard my voice out of his holy temple, and my cry shall enter before him, even into his ears" to which the cry of Jesus and the tearing of the veil of the temple in Mk 15: 37-38 would echo.

      • Ps 26: 6 and Ps 73: 13 on the washing of the hands as a sign of innocence would provide the background for Pilate's gesture (Mt 27: 24).

      • Ps 27: 13 and Ps 35: 11 on the false witnesses who rise up against the righteous are echoed with the false witnesses against Jesus (Mk 14: 57.39 || Mt 26: 59-60).

      • Ps 31: 6 "Into thine hands I will commit my spirit" provides in Lk 23: 46 the last words of Jesus.

      • Ps 31: 14 "For I heard the slander of many that dwelt round about: when they were gathered together (synagein) against me, they took counsel (bouleuein) to take my life" sees its vocabulary taken up again by Mt 26: 3-4 where they gather against Jesus and the chief priests and the elders hold council.

      • Ps 31: 23 presents the righteous who cries out to the Lord like Jesus in Mk 15: 37-38.

      • Ps 34: 21 "He keeps all their bones: not one of them shall be broken" can be considered as a source of Jn 19: 36.

      • Ps 35: 21 "And they opened wide their mouth upon me; they said, Aha, aha, our eyes have seen it" could be the background of the mocking scene in Mk 15:29.

      • Ps 38: 12 "My friends and my neighbours drew near before me, and stood still; and my nearest of kin stood afar off" could be the background of the scene of the women standing at a distance (Mk 15: 40-41 || Mt 27: 55 || Lk 23: 49).

      • Ps 39: 10 "I was dumb, and opened not my mouth" could be a parallel to the scene where Jesus does not open his mouth.

      • Ps 41: 7 presents an enemy aiming at the just without being sincere, a behavior of which Judas would be an echo.

      • Ps 41: 10 "For even the man of my peace, in whom I trusted, who ate my bread, lifted up his heel against me" is mentioned during the last meal of Jesus in Jn 13: 18.

      • Ps 42: 2-3 "My soul has thirsted for the living God" is seen by some biblical scholars as the background to Jesus' words: "I am thirsty". (Jn 19: 28).

      • Ps 42: 6 "Wherefore art thou very sad, O my soul? and wherefore dost thou trouble (syntarassein) me?" is taken up in Gethsemane (Mk 14:34 || Mt 26:28) with "my soul is sorrowful"; and Ps 42:7 ("my soul has been troubled") would be taken up by Jn 12:27 ("my soul is troubled")

      • Ps 69: 4 "I am weary of crying, my throat has become hoarse; mine eyes have failed by my waiting on my God" would be taken up by Mk 15: 34.37 (Jesus' loud cry) and Jn 19: 28 (" I am thirsty").

      • Ps 69: 22 "They gave me also gall for my food, and made me drink vinegar (oxos) for my thirst" is taken up by Mt 27: 24.34 (first wine with gall, then wine with vinegar); Mk 15: 36 || Lk 23: 36 also refer to it.

      • Ps 109: 25 "I became also a reproach to them: when they saw me they shook their heads" could be the background of the passers-by facing Jesus in Mk 15: 29 || Mt 27: 39.

      • Ps 110: 1 "The Lord said to my Lord, Sit thou on my right hand" gives us the context of Jesus' warning to the high priest about the Son of Man (Mk 14:62).

      • Ps 118: 22 "The stone which the builders rejected, the same is become the head of the corner" is echoed in the first announcement of the passion (Mk 8: 31 | Lk 9: 22.

   2. Ps 22 and the Passion
      1. Structure of the Psalm

         The psalm has two parts: the lamentations of an individual in 2-22 and the thanksgiving in 23-32. In the first part, the psalmist speaks in the first person: "I". This "I" disappears in the second part when it is the whole community that praises the Lord. The transition between the two parts is made in the Hebrew text by the words: "You have answered me!" Thus, the thanksgiving in the second part is explained by the fact that God has intervened on behalf of the supplicant.

      2. Origin of the Psalm

         Early Christians saw this psalm as a prophecy of David about the suffering messiah and put it in the mouth of Jesus (Mk 15:34; Mt 27:46). Although this view was dominant in the church for several centuries, some pointed out that v. 2 in the Septuagint translation could not apply to Christ: "the voice of my sins has made my salvation flee"; the reference to sins was not appropriate to Jesus. Medieval Judaism saw in it the figure of the Jewish people. But it is more likely that the psalm comes from the personal experience of an individual, and if that individual was of royal class, he could also represent the whole community.

         Today, biblical scholars believe that this psalm was composed in the postexilic period, i.e. after 538 BC, and perhaps in a liturgical context, by the circle of suffering righteous people who maintained their trust in God despite the tribulation. It cannot be a prophecy, because the verbs are in the present tense. The God to whom the psalmist addresses himself is the one who is enthroned in the temple in Jerusalem and receives the praise of all Israel. The psalm bears traces of the influence of the book of Jeremiah where the prophet is set apart from the womb (Jer 1:5) and where he soliloquizes about his sufferings (Jer 20), as well as the influence of the suffering servant of Isaiah 50-53.

      3. Import of the Psalm

         In pre-Christian Judaism, there is no indication that this psalm was applied to the messiah. A good example is 1QH 5 in Qumran where the hymn is attributed to the Teacher of Righteousness, but including the sorrow and faith of the community living in the last times. The early Christians applied Ps 22 to Jesus, just as they did to the suffering servant figure of Isaiah and Jeremiah. This was facilitated by the fact that the psalmist put forward the thesis that the righteous person who has put his trust in God, even if he suffers so terribly at the hands of his adversaries that he feels abandoned, will see God's intervention to deliver him. This association was all the more clear since the psalmist does not ask for the punishment of his adversaries. Moreover, since the early Christians believed that the psalm was composed by David, its application to David's son was obvious. Thus, once tradition began to place the first words of the psalm in the mouth of Jesus, it is not surprising that the psalm was used to provide details for the crucifixion narrative.

      4. Parallels between Ps 22 and Passion Narrative

         Here is a list of possible parallels. In bold type the allusions that have a higher degree of probability. The text of the psalm is that of the Septuagint.

         1. Ps 22: 2a " O God, my God, attend to me: why hast thou forsaken me?". Mt 27:46 is slightly closer to the Septuagint version than Mk 15:34: but neither has the underlined expression, which is absent from the Hebrew version.

         2. Ps 22: 3 "My God, I have shouted... by night, and there is no rest for me" perhaps evoked by the darkness of the 9th hour (Mk 15: 33-34 || Mt 27: 45-46 || Lk 23: 44.46).

         3. Ps 22: 7b "a reproach (oneidos) of men, and scorn (exoudenēma) of the people" is echoed in the mockery of passers-by in Mk 15: 29.32b and Mt 27: 39.44; in Lk 23: 11 Herod treats Jesus with contempt.

         4. Ps 22: 8a "All that saw me mocked me" is probably the background of Lk 23: 35a about the mockery of Jesus by the leaders.

         5. Ps 22: 8b "they spoke with their lips, they shook the head" perhaps refers to Mk 15: 29 || Mt 27: 39 where the passers-by nod their heads.

         6. Ps 22: 9 "He hoped in the Lord: let him deliver him, let him save him, because he takes pleasure in him" receives a partial echo in Mk 15: 30 || Mt 27: 40 || Lk 23: 39b ("save yourself"), but a more complete echo in Mt 27: 43: "He has put his trust in God; let God deliver him now, if he loves him."

         7. Ps 22: 16b "and my tongue is glued to my throat" is perhaps the background of Jn 19: 28 (" I am thirsty").

         8. Ps 22: 17b "the assembly of the wicked doers (ponēroumenoi) has beset me round" could explain the insistence on the presence of two criminals crucified with Jesus (Mk 15:27; Mt 27:38; Lk 23:33; see Jn 20:25,27).

         9. Ps 22: 17c "they pierced my hands and my feet" perhaps explains the description of the risen Jesus in Lk 24:39 ("Look at my hands and feet"); see also Jn 20:25.27.

         10. Ps 22: 19 "They parted my garments among themselves, and cast lots upon my raiment" is behind the description of the sharing of Jesus' clothes in the four evangelists, and is quoted as such by Jn 19:24.

         11. Ps 22: 25c "but when I cried to him, he heard me." perhaps explains the scene of God's intervention after Jesus' loud cry as the veil of the temple is torn (Mk 15: 37-38 || Mt 27: 50-53).

         12. Ps: 28b "and all the kindreds of the nations shall worship before him" may have influenced the story of the centurion's reaction to Jesus' death (Mk 15:39; Mt 27:54; Lk 23:47).

      5. A Few Remarks

         First of all, the order of the allusions to Ps 22 in the gospels does not correspond to the order of the verses, and therefore the passion narrative could not have been created from this psalm. At most, once the passion tradition was created, the psalm allowed

         • to accentuate certain details, such as the presence of the criminals as co-crucified, the piercing of the hands, the sharing of clothes
         • to dramatize the scene of mockery and hostility towards Jesus
         • to highlight the reversal of the situation between the being abandoned to death and its subsequent victory.

         The use of Ps 22 varies among the evangelists. The greatest users are Mark and Matthew, which suggests that the influence of Ps 22 was already present in the passion narrative when Mark wrote his gospel. This use of the psalm by the early Christians was intended to connect what happened to Jesus to God's plan. And all the parallels in the psalm are plausible: the wrongdoers condemned at the same time, the division of the crucified man's possessions, the mocking of the wrongdoers. But one cannot help but notice that most of the parallels concern the first part of Psalm 22 where the emphasis is on the feeling of abandonment. And Mark places the quotation from the beginning of the psalm, the moment when the lament is most desperate, as Jesus' last word; it is an intentional gesture. It is in vain to look for a real influence of the psalm in the resurrection narratives that follow, especially since it does not speak of the victory of the one who has suffered, but rather inserts him into a liturgical community that praises God.

         Luke is very different from Mark in his use of the psalms in general and Ps 22 in particular. For example, his elimination of the reference to Ps 22:2a ("why have you forsaken me?") is justified by his different Christology just as his elimination of the reference to the mockery of the passers-by (Ps 22:7b) comes from his desire to portray the Jews favorably, as he did with the shepherds in his infancy narrative. On the other hand, he emphasizes the mockery of the leaders (Ps 22:8a). On the points where Luke has no particular interest, the evangelist is content to copy Mark, as in the allusions to Ps 22:3.9.17b.19. As for the reference to Ps 22:17c ("they pierced my feet and hands"), it serves his apologetic intention of the reality of the risen body before skeptical Greeks.

         In John, only the reference to Ps 22:19 ("They have divided my garments among themselves...") is clear. The difference with the Synoptics is that he bases himself on an independent passion tradition which appeals to different passages of the OT than those used by the pre-Marcan and Marcan tradition.