The Israelite family devoted most of its efforts to earning a living, whether by cultivating the land, herding cattle or a combination of the two. Other activities were linked to maintaining and improving the quality of life. They included lodging, food preparation, tool and clothing making, as well as more mundane tasks such as laundry (Jer 2: 22) and the like. A discussion of Israelite household and family life revolves around several themes, including daily routine, diet and food preparation, health, family structure, life cycles, and related customs and legal frameworks.

1. The Israelite Diet

   Most available information suggests that the majority of people were not overweight (there are exceptions, of course: Jdg 3:17; Am 4:1; Job 15:27; Deut 32:15), due to their diet and the intense physical activity they engaged in. Since we assume that the diet in Palestine was similar to that of the entire Mediterranean basin, documents from different cultures and sources will be consulted in the following study.

   1. Food Resources

      The Bible sees the land of Israel as a land "flowing with milk and honey" (Ex 3:8), two foods that some specialists consider healthy. On other occasions, the Bible considers "grain, wine and oil" to be the main dietary elements. However, written and archaeological evidence indicates that the ancient menu was much more varied. The daily menu can be divided into two groups: (1) the products of field plants and fruit trees, and (2) animals and animal by-products. The Israelite menu was closely linked to cultic practices, as most of the products permitted as sacrifices could also be eaten, and some foods were eaten mainly at cultic events and were not part of the normal daily diet. Consequently, the study of the Israelite diet must begin with an examination of the sacrificial lists.

      It has been suggested that "food is one of the main symbols manipulated by people seeking to maintain their cultural identity and group solidarity", but for some reason we are only in possession of detailed Israelite food lists. For the Israelites, food was a means of defining themselves. Although it's impossible to know to what extent dietary laws were respected, self-definition is most likely at the origin of certain biblical lists enumerating the different types of animals whose consumption was permitted or forbidden. Moreover, some taboos do not concern the source of the food but the method of preparation, as in the case of boiling a kid in its mother's milk (Ex 23:19; 34:26; Deut 14:21). There is no list of forbidden plants, so we can assume that there was no prohibition on eating a plant or fruit, and that limitations on their consumption were dictated by taste and toxicity (2 Kings 4:39-40) and the fulfillment of religious injunctions such as tithing.

      Only indigenous plants were considered suitable for sacrifice. However, as zooarchaeological studies show, some wild animals and fish were consumed but not included on any sacrificial lists. Although some Israelites must have fished, this activity was probably introduced after the basis of the sacrificial lists had been established, which explains the absence of fish in these lists. As certain birds (dove, turtledove) appear on the lists of sacrifices (Lev 1:14; 5:7), we can assume that they were raised in the country. In addition to these birds, wild quail and rock partridges were suitable for consumption. The birds that could not be eaten are identified by name (Deut 14:12-18), and it seems that their common characteristic is that they are mostly birds of prey and scavengers. As far as mammals are concerned, the general rule authorizing their consumption is set out in Deut 14:6: "any animal with cloven hooves that ruminates". This definition corresponds well to the ruminants available to the Israelites. The animals most commonly consumed, as biblical references and zooarchaeological evidence show, were, in order, small and large cattle. The rule for aquatic fauna was simple: "Everything that lives in water may be eaten: everything with fins and scales" (Deut 14:9). Creatures that "swarm on the ground" (Lev 11:29-30), such as rodents and lizards, as well as insects (Lev 11:41-44) were forbidden; however, grasshoppers were permitted (Lev 11:20-23) and even considered a delicacy.

   2. The Menu

      The foods eaten by the Israelites can be divided into two categories: daily meals and festive or ritual foods. Most biblical and extra-biblical sources mention festive occasions and celebrations such as the welcoming of guests or civic and cultic celebrations. The latter include Solomon's inauguration of the temple (1 Kings 8:63-66; 2 Chr 7:5-9). To get an idea of what might have been consumed at the time, Solomon's daily provisions included thirty kor (1 kor = 6.25 U.S. bushels) of fine flour, sixty kor of flour, ten fat oxen, twenty oxen, one hundred sheep, as well as deer, gazelles, roe deer and fat fowl (1 Kings 5: 2-3). At the inauguration of Calah Palace, Ashurnasirpal II fed 69,574 men and women for ten days. Clearly, what was eaten on these occasions was not a daily meal, but these descriptions illustrate the resources available.

      An example of a complete meal is Abraham feeding the three messengers (Gen 18:6-8). Although this meal was hastily prepared and intended for guests, it is similar to what is described in the story of Sinuhe (c. twentieth-nineteenth century BCE), an Egyptian nobleman who resided in Canaan for a time: "Bread was prepared for me as daily food, wine as daily provision, cooked meat and roasted fowl, next to the wild beasts of the desert, for they hunted for me and lay down before me, next to the catch of my (own) hunting dogs." Both Sinuhe and Abraham belonged to an affluent social class; therefore, what was available to them may not have been typical. Some descriptions in the book of Ruth will serve as a comparison with the working class. During the day, harvest workers ate the following products in the fields: bread, which they soaked in vinegar, and parched or roasted grain (Ruth 2:14). They drank water to quench their thirst (Ruth 2:9). The traditional breakfast of many agrarian societies in the Middle East is very similar to what Ruth and her companions ate, simple but nourishing, and consists of pita (flat, round bread) soaked in olive oil, za'atar (a Middle Eastern condiment) and onion. A hard-boiled egg soaked in oil or fat is sometimes added. The traditional vegetarian nature of the Middle Eastern diet is also evident in the typical Druze meal, which may include olives, bread, eggplant, cauliflower, chickpeas, rice, wheat, potatoes, salad, yoghurt and fruit. Although some of the items listed are relatively new to the region, the vegetarian principle has been maintained.

      1. Baked Goods

         Cereals and legumes are basic foodstuffs that can be consumed in a variety of ways. They contain a variety of minerals and vitamins that are very important for maintaining good health. In season, cereals could be eaten fresh (whole or crushed), and when dry, they could be dried or roasted for immediate consumption. Whole or crushed cereals could be used in porridge (Gen 25: 29,34) and stew. Using cereals in this way is very healthy, as it preserves the bran and germ. However, the most versatile way to use grain is to grind it into flour. Grinding was done in stone mortars and pestles, mainly made of stone, and using millstones. Mortars could be portable or carved from rock, and millstones were composed of two stones, the upper one rubbing against the lower one, while the grain was placed between the two. The resulting product was wholemeal flour, but this flour had one drawback: it contained a large quantity of grit which, when consumed, crushed tooth enamel and the teeth themselves, contributing to oral health problems.

         Flour is a raw material that can take many different forms. Mixed with liquids and spices, it can be transformed into different products, the most common of which is dough, which in turn can be transformed into a variety of bakery products. Bakery products can be divided into leavened and unleavened products. Given enough time and the right conditions, it is preferable to make leavened bread. Bread was an essential part of every meal; the term leḥem (bread) therefore applied to food in general and to foods processed from cereals. In addition to bread, several baked goods are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. Bread can be made in two ways, with a baking sheet over an open fire (Lev 7:9; Isa 44:19) and in a covered oven (Lev 26:26). Numerous archaeological digs have revealed the remains of clay bread ovens, while fragments of bread trays have been found in several excavations.

      2. Dairy Products

         The meal served by Abraham to his guests (Gen 18:8) clearly shows that fresh milk was an important part of a sumptuous meal. Moreover, fresh milk was also a thirst-quenching drink, as the incident between Yael and Sisera shows: "He [Sisera] said to her [Yael], 'Give me water to drink, for I am thirsty'. She opened a skin of milk [and] gave him something to drink" (Jdg 4:19).

         Fresh milk cannot be kept for long without refrigeration, especially in the hot climate of the Middle East. To preserve it, therefore, it has to be processed. The Mediterranean economy was largely based on livestock farming, and herders learned to process milk and turn it into a number of products, as suggested by the pre-Israelite story of Sinuhe, who was given "milk in all culinary preparations". These included yoghurt, different kinds of butter, different kinds of cheese and so on.

         Milk processing begins with churning, which separates the fat from the whey. A vessel made of goatskin or clay is used for this purpose. The vessel, still used in some societies today, is suspended so that it can swing back and forth, a movement that separates the fat and enables the manufacture of various products. The highly nutritious dairy products made and consumed by the Israelites were butter, cheese and yoghurt.

      3. Meat Dishes

         Meats available in Israelite cuisine included beef, veal, mutton, lamb, pork, poultry and fish. Pork was forbidden to the Israelites, but was eaten at certain times by particular groups such as the Philistines, especially in the Iron Age I (1200 to 930 BC). For the average Israelite, meat was not an everyday dish. When it was served, meat came mainly from domesticated animals, although hunted animals were also available, as shown by certain biblical lists (Deut 14:5) and zooarchaeological evidence. That game animals were considered a delicacy can be surmised from Isaac's request to Esau: "Take your hunting gear, quiver and bow, go into the countryside and find me some game. Then make me a tasty dish, just as I like it, and bring it to me to eat" (Gen 27:3-4). Game was sold to those who could not hunt or trap it, as shown by the zooarchaeological data found at a market in Ashkelon. Domestic animals came directly from the herd (Gen 18:7; 27:9; Jdg 6:18-19) or were kept close to home and fattened for special occasions (1 Sam 28:24).

         There were several ways of preparing meat, and they were determined by the occasion. Extra-biblical sources and ethnographic studies indicate that, for long preservation, meat was smoked, dried or salted. However, the Bible makes no mention of these practices. Any biblical reference to the preparation of meat concerns immediate consumption, generally on festive occasions such as the reception of guests or cultic feasts. One method of preparing meat was to boil it in water in a large pot. The by-product of this process was broth, which was considered good enough to serve to honored guests (Jdg 6:19-20). Another way of cooking meat was to roast it over an open fire. That this method was not reserved for festive occasions is suggested by references to Isa 44:16, 19, where the prophet mocks idol worshippers who use part of the same tree to carve idols and the rest to roast meat.

         A study of the culinary customs of traditional Middle Eastern societies, such as the Bedouin and Druze communities, can show how meat was prepared and under what conditions, and indicates that these customs are ancient. Bedouin families sacrifice in certain sanctuaries, in a manner reminiscent of what is described in 1 Sam 1:3. In addition, although it is the Bedouin head of household who slaughters the animal, others help with the butchering, often a professional butcher (ṭabāḥ), similar to ṭabāḥ in 1 Sam 9: 23-24, would be in charge of dismemberment. The preferred animal for sacrifice is a young male sheep or goat (6-12 months old) no more than 2.5 years old, in line with certain biblical prescriptions.

         In traditional Middle Eastern societies, as was the case in antiquity, meals consisting of meat dishes signify special occasions, such as weddings and the welcoming of guests, and are full of symbolism. Invitation, acceptance or refusal and the protocol observed during the meal serve as means of communication, and all signal the recognition of social status, the importance of the occasion and the seriousness of the host's intention. The host sits down with the guests to encourage them to eat and attend to all their needs, like Abraham, who "there under the tree served them himself while they ate" (Gen 18:8). Nevertheless, no business should be discussed until the host has indicated, at the end of the meal, that he is ready to do so.

         Today, food is served on a large communal platter. A similar practice existed in the Iron Age. The order in which guests are served is representative of the social hierarchy perceived by the host society. If everyone eats from the common platter, no one takes food from the platter or eats before the guest. Special parts are reserved for the guest. All these customs are reflected in the way Samuel treated Saul during his visit:

         "Then Samuel took Saul and the young man and brought them into the hall and gave them a place at the head of those who had been invited, of whom there were about thirty. And Samuel said to the cook, 'Bring the portion I gave you, the one I asked you to put aside.' The cook took up the upper thigh and set it before Saul. Samuel said, 'See, what was reserved is set before you. Eat, for it was kept for you for this appointed time, so that you might eat with the guests.'" (1 Sam 9:22-24)

         As this passage shows, certain parts of the animal, such as the breast and right thigh, were considered choice and were reserved for the honored participants of the meal, who could be guests or priests. Other parts, such as the fat, kidneys and liver, were always given to the priests.

      4. Seafood

         Zooarchaeological and textual evidence indicates that the ancient Mediterranean diet included fish. We know that the Egyptians ate and exported fish, and that the Israelites did too. Current archaeological data do not allow us to determine how often and how fish was prepared. What we can say is that not all the types of fish eaten at Israelite sites complied with the biblical rule. The biblical instructions stipulate that

         you may eat any animal of the sea or river that has fins and scales; but any animal that does not have fins or scales, whether a water beast or a creature that lives in the water, sea or river, must be an abomination to you; ...any animal of the water that does not have fins or scales must be an abomination to you. (Lev 11:9-10,12; see also Deut 14:9-10)

         The Hebrew Bible only refers to fish in the collective dāgâ. No fish are mentioned by name, but zooarchaeological data from sites identified as Israelite show that the inhabitants of these settlements consumed a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish. Remains of freshwater and saltwater molluscs have been found in smaller numbers at several sites, and it is not possible to determine whether they were used as food or for other purposes such as jewelry and decoration. The small number of shells suggests that they were not dyeing by-products.

         To be eaten, fresh fish can be boiled, fried or roasted. Numerous inland sites have yielded fish remains, including bones and scales, and it's clear that due to the distance from their source, no fresh fish was eaten there. Although the Hebrew Bible makes no mention of eating or preparing fish, it does refer to fishing. Fishermen from Palestine and other countries, such as Egypt, supplied the inland villages with fish. The fact that one of Jerusalem's gates was named the "Gate of Fish" (Zeph 1:10; Neh 3:3; 12:39; 2 Chr 33:14) attests to the vitality of the fish market. In order to be transported, fish first had to be processed, either by smoking or by drying and salting. Extra-biblical written and artistic sources show that fish was processed before being shipped. Egyptian sources show that fish was first cleaned, then salted and dried.

      5. Fowl

         As with other living creatures, the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions concerning the consumption of poultry. From the Iron Age onwards, there is no architectural evidence that poultry was domesticated. Evidence, such as columbaria, is known from the later Hellenistic and Roman periods. However, the inclusion of certain birds in sacrifice lists strongly suggests that pigeons and turtle-doves were raised under controlled conditions. Bone remains of chickens, geese and ducks from the Ophel excavations in Jerusalem and other Iron Age sites show that these types of domesticated birds were available. Biblical references and zooarchaeological evidence show that some wild birds were hunted. The consumption of birds was probably no different from the consumption of other meats. Moreover, like other animals, birds were fattened for consumption on special occasions, as suggested by the reference to "fattened fowls" served on Solomon's table (1 Kings 5:3).

         Until the domestication of the hen, eggs had to be available in limited quantities and were therefore considered a delicacy. Two biblical references (Deut 22:6; Isa 10:14) suggest that eggs were available in the wild. The fact that eggs were considered a delicacy is illustrated in Egyptian art, where images depict the offering of bowls filled with large eggs, probably ostrich and pelican.

      6. Fruit and Fruit Products

         While the valleys were suitable for large-scale farming, the hills were not. An effective way of using the slopes was to build terraces and use the artificially levelled plots to plant fruit trees of various kinds. Trees native to this region, which were planted and harvested, included figs, pomegranates, vines, apricots, date palms, apples and olives. With the exception of the latter, all these trees produce fruit that can be used in the same way. In season, the fruits of these trees can be eaten fresh and their juice drunk, or they can be processed for later use.

         Other native fruit trees include the carob, which was probably very popular. The sweet-tasting pods are used today as a substitute for chocolate and may have been eaten in ancient times by those with a sweet tooth. The fig-like sycamore was a poor man's fruit. This tree was widespread in Egypt, where the fruit was eaten and the wood used for construction. The black mulberry tree and the citron, a member of the citrus family, are also native to the region, but there are no references or other evidence of the use of the fruits of these trees.

         Processing fruit for future consumption depends on the nature of each individual fruit. Because of their high sugar content, all the above-mentioned fruits could be processed into alcoholic beverages. The most widely used for this purpose were grapes, followed by pomegranates. Another use for fruit was to boil it into a thick, sweet syrup, known in the Bible as honey. Grapes, figs, dates and apricots could be dried, and fruit could be stored individually or put on string or pressed into cakes. Dried fruits, such as raisins, were eaten as they were when sweets were desired. Due to their high sugar content, they are the most efficient source of energy and were carried on long walks to provide energy. Dried fruit mixes have a long tradition.

      7. Drinks

         The most common drinks to quench thirst were water and milk; the latter was sometimes drunk in its processed yoghurt form (Jdg 4:19; 5:25). Whey was another drink made from a dairy by-product. In season, fresh fruit juices were available. For long-term use, juices had to be preserved in the form of alcoholic beverages, namely wine. Grapes were the most common fruit processed into wine, which could be used for secular purposes or on cultic occasions. Other fruits, such as pomegranates and dates, were also made into wine.

         Beer was another widespread alcoholic beverage in the ancient Near East. With Egypt and Mesopotamia renowned for their beer production, we can assume that beer was also known in Israel, which lies between these two countries. Most scholars suggest that the biblical term šēkār (strong drink, intoxicating drink, fermented or intoxicating liquor) refers to beer, while some postulate that it refers to grappa, a very strong distilled drink. As there is no other term for beer, we can conclude, by process of elimination, that the biblical references to šēkār most likely refer to beer. Another alcoholic beverage was mead (possibly ṣûp, Prov 16: 24 ; Ps 19: 11), made by mixing water and honey, then fermenting with malt, yeast and other ingredients.

      8. Other Foods

         The olive tree was considered one of Palestine's most important natural resources because of its ability to provide oil (Deut 8:8). There were other oil-producing plants, such as sesame, but olive oil was considered tastier, more versatile and had a longer shelf life. Palestine was an important producer of olive oil, not only for its inhabitants, but also for other regions of the ancient Near East, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia. Olive oil can be used for a variety of purposes, including lighting, cosmetics and medicine. However, if one of its main uses is as a foodstuff, the written word doesn't provide us with much information on the subject. The Bible says little about the use of oil in cooking. Although oil is used to a large extent for frying, this use is described mainly in connection with sacrifices, when recipes containing oil as an important component are listed: "a tenth of an ephah (1 ephah = 12 US gallons) of flour, the usual grain offering, half in the morning and half in the evening. It must be cooked with oil on a griddle. Bring it well mixed and present it crumbled into small pieces as a grain offering, a soothing aroma to YHWH" (Lev 6:13-14; see also 7:9-10,12). Although this recipe concerns a "whole offering" and is not meant to be eaten, it must reflect certain practices of ancient Mediterranean cuisine.

         Vegetables are another food group little known in the written and archaeological record. The Bible says little about vegetables, and when they are mentioned, the attitude is mixed: sometimes they were regarded as a delicacy, even indispensable, sometimes as the lowest food. Whatever the attitude adopted in certain written documents, some vegetables are native to this region and have been cultivated and consumed for millennia. These include carrots, cucumbers, muskmelons and watermelons, onions, garlic and so on. Many leafy plants (greens) and roots were gathered in the wild and eaten as part of a meal. Dandelions are still picked by locals for salads.

         Other plants, mostly wild, were used in the diet, including nuts and berries. Nuts include pistachios, walnuts, pine nuts and almonds. Among the berries native to this region, the most important are blackberry and mulberry. Insects are an entirely different category of food. According to Lev 11:20-23, certain grasshoppers could be eaten. They could be grilled on skewers or fried, and Assyrian reliefs show that these insects were considered a delicacy.

      9. Spices and Condiments

         Most foods are no good without seasoning. Seasoning can be done with minerals, such as salt, or with flowers. The latter can be cultivated or picked from the wild. Some spices, whether mineral or floral, had to be imported. Salt, an important spice (Job 6:6), is a deposit found where salt water evaporates; it comes from limited places, so most communities had to buy it. Its importance is demonstrated by the fact that it was also used as a sacrifice (Lev 2:13). Sources of salt were found by the sea, whether the Mediterranean or the Dead Sea, and had to be transported to other regions.

         Cultivated and wild spices native to the region included cumin, black cumin, dill, coriander, thyme, black mustard, saffron, hyssop, mint, marjoram, vetches, capers, salt bush, dwarf chicory, reichardia, and many others. Imported plant spices included myrrh, galbanum and cinnamon. Many plants were used for medicinal purposes and as perfumes and incense.

         Although dried fruits were eaten as sweets, the most common sweetener was honey from bees, both wild and domestic. Other fruit-based sweeteners were thick syrups produced by boiling different kinds of fruit (e.g. dates) to the desired consistency.

   3. Food Storage

      Needless to say, not all food could be consumed immediately after production. Moreover, it was in producers' interests to produce surpluses so that they could be used out of season and for trade and exchange. Storage of surpluses depended on the nature of the product and how it was intended to be used.

      The most commonly stored product, requiring the most space due to its volume, was grain. The Israelites stored grain in pits and jars. Pits lined with stone and plaster were located at various points in the enclosure, while storage in jars was most often done in a storeroom in the house. The latter was a practical solution, as it brought the grain closer to the milling facilities. Flour was also stored in jars, although daily milling was preferred. Based on some ostraca from Arad, one scholar calculated that the daily bread ration was one loaf made from one liter of flour. In certain circumstances (e.g. military service), bread could only be consumed for a maximum of four days. For longer periods, flour was distributed.

      Jars of various shapes and sizes were also used to store liquids such as wine, oil and water. Other products, such as dried fruit, were sometimes preserved in jars. Milk, meanwhile, was preserved in a goatskin.

      For long-term preservation, meat and milk had to undergo special treatment. Meat and fish could only be preserved by drying, salting and/or smoking. Milk could be preserved for long periods as dry cheese. The end products of these processes could be placed in baskets for later use.

   4. Food Preparation and Consumption

      Meals were eaten at home, outdoors while working in the fields and orchards, in central places of worship, and on the move during travel or military campaigns. The type of food consumed on these occasions depended on the location and facilities available. It's worth remembering that even when food was consumed outside the home, much of it was prepared in advance and considered ready-to-use.

      The main facilities directly involved in food preparation were grain milling, cooking and baking. Grain was ground, usually in small batches, in a mortar with a pestle. Mortars were either portable or carved from rock. The end result of this activity was not flour, but a coarse gruel or pulp that could be used for a variety of dishes. Flour was produced using millstones, consisting of a pair of stones, one upper and one lower. The upper stone, smaller than the lower, was held in both hands and rubbed back and forth, with the grain placed between the two. Grinding equipment was preferably made of hard stone, such as basalt or flint. Grinding was a daily task that produced fresh flour.

      The dough was probably kneaded on a wooden board or trough placed on a stone workbench or on the floor. Baking was done in two ways: on a tray in an open fire (hearth) and in an oven. Kilns were round, domed installations built of clay. They were placed where the smoke didn't interfere with other activities, either in the courtyard or in a room near the door. Ovens were most often owned individually by the family, but there were also shared ovens (Lev 26: 26). The ovens were fuelled mainly by animal dung, and the fire was lit with small branches, straw, flax fibres and the remains of pressed olives.

      Large clay or stone bowls were used in food preparation to mix ingredients and as serving vessels for the community. Some dishes were cooked in a hearth, using pots of different shapes and sizes depending on what was being cooked. Water was boiled in a different-shaped pot from the one used to cook meat, or to prepare gruel or stew. The latter were cooked in wide-mouthed kettles, allowing the food to be stirred and covered with a flat stone or a large piece of pottery to obtain a faster, higher-quality result.

      Although stoves and grates are not known in the ceramic repertoire of the Israelite period, some biblical terms such as marḥešet (saucepan, stewpot) suggest that such a utensil must have existed.

      How many meals a day did the average Israelite eat? When were they eaten? What was served and how was it eaten? Most cooked meals were eaten at home or in places of worship. Home-cooked meals were eaten at the end of the working day. On special occasions, such as the arrival of guests, they were eaten at the appropriate time. Field workers were expected to have something to eat before going to work (Prov 31: 15). At work, whether tending flocks or working in the fields and orchards, food was usually "take-out". The same applied to travelers and soldiers on maneuvers. These meals included bread, cheese and yoghurt, seasonal vegetables, dried fruit and water. In the right season, field workers ate dried cereals and fresh fruit.

      Cooked meals consisted mainly of soup, porridge and stew, served in individual bowls. As the only available utensil was the knife, food was eaten by swallowing and pushing it into the mouth and grasping it by hand, probably with a piece of flat bread. At the end of the meal, the dish or bowl was wiped clean with bread, as illustrated by the metaphor: "I will clean Jerusalem as one cleans a bowl: one cleans it and turns it upside down" (2 Kings 21:13). Turning the dish upside down was probably a sign given by the eater that he or she had eaten enough.

      While average Israelites led their gastronomic lives essentially as described above, the upper class (royalty, nobility, high priesthood) had a much richer diet, which must have affected their appearance and behavior (Deut 32:13-18). The prophet Amos criticizes the behavior of the upper class and their eating habits in Amos 6:4-6 :

      Woe to those who lie on beds of ivory
      and lounge on their couches
      and eat lambs from the flock
      and calves from the stall,
      who sing idle songs to the sound of the harp
      and like David improvise on instruments of music,
      who drink wine from bowls
      and anoint themselves with the finest oils

2. Health and Sickness

   What do we know about the physical and mental health of the Israelites? To find out more about health and illness in biblical times, we rely on written sources (biblical and extra-biblical) and archaeological evidence, which is available from skeletal remains, analysis of the surrounding soil and analysis of other remains (e.g. coprolites).

   1. Disease in general

      The vocabulary associated with this subject suggests that the Bible has much to offer in this regard, but the problem for the modern student is the correct interpretation of the terms and the lack of descriptive details of the cases. There are several general terms for sickness (Deut 7:15; ḥŏlî [disease]: Deut 28:61; neḡaʿ [plague, disease, mark, pestilence stain]: 1 Kings 8:37; deway [sickness, languor]: Ps 41:4, and madweh [disease]: Deut 7:15). In addition, there is a special term for plague (maggēpâ). Physical pain has its own terms. Two terms for severe pain (ṣîr [pain, distress] and ḥēbel [pain, sorrow, labor]) are generally reserved for the contractions of childbirth (Isa 13:8; 21:3). The more common term (ke’ēḇ [mental and physical pain, grief] Isa 17:11) is used to describe pain in general. Physical injuries such as wounds have their own terminology.

      The opposite of disease is health and healing. There are several terms for well-being and recovery (marpē’ [health, healing, cure] Mal 3:20; repu’ōṯ [remedy, medicine] Jer 30:13; 46:11; Ezek 30:21; and rip’ût [healing] Prov 3:8) and for the healing process [’ărûkâ [healing, restoration] Jer 33:6; māzôr [wound] Jer 30:13).

   2. Mental illness

      The Bible does not deal with mental illness in detail, but it does acknowledge its existence. The state of mental illness is called (šigāʿôn [madness] Deut 28: 28 ; 2 Kings 9: 20 ; Zech 12: 4). There are at least three detailed incidents describing situations of people suffering from mental imbalance. The first describes Saul, who suffered from an "evil spirit" and was calmed by David's music (1 Sam 16:14-23). The second occurs when David, escaping from Saul, appears in Gath and, out of fear of the Philistine king Akish, pretends to be mad: "Then he feigned madness before their eyes and began to rave in their hands, tracing signs on the doorposts and drooling into his beard" (1 Sam 21:14). The third incident concerns the behavior of one of Elisha's disciples who went to Jehu at Ramoth in Galilee to anoint him king of Israel (2 Kings 9:1-12). No details are available, but his behavior must have suggested that he was considered mentally unbalanced.

   3. Physical disabilities

      Physical handicaps (mĕ’ûm [spot, blemish], Lev 21:17-18) appear in the Bible mainly as formulas. Lists of handicaps describe people who were unfit for the office of priest. These lists are reinforced by similar lists describing animals unfit for sacrifice (Lev 22: 19-25). The disability most often mentioned is blindness (ʿiûārôn) (Deut 28:28; Zech 12:4). From the account of David’s capture of Jerusalem, it seems that people with these disabilities were kept on the outskirts or outside the city (2 Sam 5:6-8). We know that Mefibosheth, Saul’s son, was "crippled in both legs" (2 Sam 9:1-3; 19:27). According to 2 Sam 4:4, his condition was the result of a childhood injury. Other disabilities mentioned in several biblical texts are deafness (ḥērēš, Lev 19: 14) and mutilation (’illēm, Ex 4: 11).

      Other disabilities listed in Lev 21: 18,20 and Deut 28: 27 include humpbacked and thinness. Other terms in the list, not fully understood, may include impaired eyesight, enlarged testicles, mutilation, too-long limb, scab or scar, scurf, and itch or rash. The last three terms can be considered as diseases rather than disabilities because of the way they appear in other contexts.

   4. Skin diseases

      Most of the diseases mentioned in the Bible are skin diseases. For example, Deut 15:2-15 deals with a situation involving skin discharge, perhaps pus. Strict instructions are given not to touch the sick person or any object touched by them. The sick person was to be healed by washing him with water, and anything he touched was also to be washed. On the eighth day after his healing, he was to offer a sacrifice.

      Similarly, Lev 13 is a treatise on a particular skin disease. After listing the symptoms, the text defines the condition as ṣāraʿaṯ, generally translated as "leprosy". However, from the description of the symptoms, this disease is not modern leprosy, i.e. Hansen's disease. There are several types of the biblical disease, some of which involve inanimate objects and can be understood as mold. Objects affected by this so-called leprosy had to be burned. A strain of the disease affected people. The treatment indicated that the affected person had to be quarantined and examined for a certain period every seven days. Only when certain physical signs proved that the person was in good health could he or she be reintegrated into society. From all the descriptions of this disease, it seems that it was, or was believed to be, a contagious disease and a punishment from YHWH.

      Three people were affected by leprosy. Miriam, Moses' sister, fell ill after reproaching Moses for marrying a black woman (Num 12); Naaman, commander of the army of the king of Aram (2 Kgs 5), was cured of his disease by bathing seven times in the Jordan; and Uzziah, king of Judah, had to reside apart and was never cured (2 Kings 15:5; 2 Chr 26:19).

      Boils (šiḥîn) were another skin disease, which caused sores on the skin. ('ăḇaʿbuʿōt, Ex 9: 9-10). King Hezekiah was healed by having a cake of dried figs rubbed on his wounds (2 Kings 20:7; Isa 38:2-7). Another person who suffered from this disease and was subsequently healed is Job (Job 2, 7).

   5. Internal diseases

      The internal diseases mentioned in the Bible are no better understood than skin diseases. In Deut 28:22, a list of internal diseases probably includes pulmonary tuberculosis (šaḥepeṯ), high fever (qadaḥat), inflammation (dalleqet), fever (ḥarḥur) and plague (ḥereb = sword). This list includes two additional diseases that can be identified, using Jer 30:6, as jaundice or anemia (yērāqôn) and leanness or anorexia (šiddāpôn). Another disease, ṭĕḥôrîm (Deut 28:27; 1 Sam 5:6-12), is identified as hemorrhoids. The Philistines were afflicted with this disease after seizing the Ark of the Covenant, and were healed only after returning the Ark.

      A few individuals are described as sick, including Yoram, king of Judah, who died of an intestinal disease, perhaps dysentery or acute diarrhea. "After all this, YHWH struck him in the bowels with an incurable disease. The days went by, and about the time the second year came to an end, his bowels gave out under the effect of the disease, so that he died in terrible suffering" (2 Chr 21: 18-19). Other people mentioned in the Bible as having been ill are the widow's son whom Elijah revived (1 Kings 17: 17-24); Elisha the prophet, who was mortally ill (2 Kings 13: 14); Akhazias, king of Israel, who fell and was wounded or ill (2 Kings 1: 2); and Joash, king of Judah, who, while suffering from an undisclosed illness, was murdered by his servants (2 Chr 24: 25).

      The worst disease that could affect human and animal populations was the plague (deber). Several times, the plague is equated with the sword (ḥereb, Lev 26: 25), and sometimes the word sword replaces the word plague. In addition, on numerous occasions, these two elements appear with famine (rāʿāb). YHWH used these three devastating forces to bring total destruction. Pestilence is often called a plague (maggēpâ) and is YHWH’s punishment for bad behavior. Sometimes, YHWH inflicted plague by sending a messenger (mal’āk) with a sword (1 Chr 21:15, 27); so it’s safe to assume that when YHWH’s mal’āk appeared overnight in the Assyrian camp in Jerusalem, it was plague (2 Kings 19:35). Some of the most famous incidents of plague mentioned in the Bible occurred during wandering in the desert (Num 14:37; 17:13-15; 25:8-18). Another struck the Israelites after David’s census (2 Sam 24:13-17; 1 Chr 17).

      According to the Israelite conception, the sources of disease were twofold: (1) ideological, i.e. YHWH's response to misconduct such as breaking the covenant; and (2) physical, i.e. close association with a sick person that led to contagion and contamination. The first factor was dealt with by prayer, covenant-keeping and sacrifice; the second was dealt with by quarantine and ritual purification.

   6. Surgical procedures

      There are no biblical references to any type of surgery, with the exception of circumcision, which is sometimes described as being performed with flint blades (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:3-4). There is archaeological evidence of certain surgical procedures such as trepanation (also known as craniotomy), which involves removing part of the skull bone without penetrating the underlying soft tissue. This delicate procedure has been known since the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods in and around Jericho, and there is evidence from Lachish that it was also practiced in the Iron Age. Judging by the biblical references, the Israelites' anatomical knowledge was limited and probably derived mainly from the slaughtering and butchering of animals. The internal parts mentioned are the heart, kidneys and liver, all of which are perceived as places of emotion and intelligence.

3. Hygiene and Sanitation
   1. Personal Hygiene

      The limited availability of water has made cleanliness a constant problem. Daily washing was probably limited to the hands and face. The importance of clean hands became a metaphor for a clean conscience (Deut 21:6; 2 Sam 22:21; Ps 18:21,25; Job 9:30; 22:30). Foot washing is part of the ritual of hospitality (Gen 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Jdg 19:21; 1 Sam 25:41). Biblical references strongly suggest that foot-washing took place in a large bowl or pot (sîr : Ps 60: 10 ; 108: 10). Priests had to wash their hands and feet in basins before performing their duties (Ex 30:18-19.21; 40:30-31; Deut 21:6; 2 Chr 4:6).

      Ordinary people probably didn't often have the opportunity to take a full bath, unless they lived near a source of running water such as a stream. Sometimes, washing in certain bodies of water, as in the case of Naaman the Aramean washing in the Jordan (2 Kings 5), was considered purifying and restorative. Women probably washed more often than men, probably to flirt (Song 5:3; Ruth 3:3) and to purify themselves after menstruation. Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite, was taking a full bath, perhaps in her courtyard, when David, who was on the roof of her house, saw her and loved her (2 Sam 11:2).

      We can only guess if people used soap to wash themselves. Both the expression "clean hands" and the biblical term for soap derive from the same verbal root, brr. Jer 2:22 proclaims, "Even if you wash yourself [kābas] with lye [neter] and use much soap [bōrît], the filth of your perversion remains before me - oracle of the Lord YHWH." The verb used here to wash is generally employed in the context of washing clothes, but it can also be interpreted as referring to washing the body. Soap bōrît (Mal 3:2) was used for washing clothes. It was potash soap, a mild soap made from the lye of wood ashes. Several biblical references mention washing clothes (kbs). It’s impossible to know how often people washed their clothes, but limited water sources made this an infrequent activity. It seems that regular laundry care was reserved for the wealthy (2 Sam 19:25), a task probably performed by professionals who gave the name of their profession to the place where they plied their trade (Isa 7:3; 36:2 = 2 Kings 18:17).

      The Bible mentions ritual washing of the body and clothing. When the blood of a sacrifice splashed onto a garment, it had to be washed (Lev 6:20). Anyone who touched the carcass of a clean or unclean animal had to wash his clothes (Lev 11:25, 28, 40). When a person was afflicted with a skin disease, part of the healing process required him to wash his clothes (Lev 13, 6, 34; 14: 8-9). A similar treatment is prescribed for a man who suffers from "a discharge from his member", has had "an emission of semen" or has touched a menstruating woman (Lev 15). A garment showing signs of mildew had to be washed (Lev 13:54-55,58). While the washing of garments seems to have been an integral part of purity (Ex 19:10,14), there is no way of knowing to what extent these prescriptions were respected, or who might have enforced them.

      To combat body odour, people - especially women - used perfumes. Perfumes were also used to mask foul odours in burial caves where multiple burials took place, as witnessed by the numerous black perfume jugs unearthed in many Iron Age II caves (930 to 539 BC). Incense and spices were used to combat odours in public places and homes. Some were manufactured locally, others were imported from faraway lands.

   2. Sanitation

      There is no evidence that the towns and villages of the period and region in question had sewage disposal systems. The pipes found during archaeological excavations belonged to rainwater collection systems. Rainwater was collected from roofs and streets and diverted into cisterns for later use. Some cisterns were privately owned, while others were part of a central system.

      Waste disposal was carried out by sweeping the floors of houses and cleaning up garbage directly in the street, or by throwing it over the city wall. On the one hand, these habits created landfills outside the city, on the other, they raised the level of the street. This process meant that, after a while, the occupants had to climb down into their houses. In addition, the garbage in the street (ṭîṭ ḥûṣôt or repeš ḥûṣôt 2 Sam 22: 43 ; Isa 57: 20 ; Mic 7: 10 ; Zech 9: 3 ; 10: 5 ; Ps 18: 43) contaminated water supply systems that depended on runoff collection. This contributed to the spread of disease and the poor health of local residents.

      The disposal of human excrement was an acute problem in Israelite towns and villages. The biblical instruction is simple: "You shall have a certain place outside the camp, and there you shall go. You shall have a trowel [yātēd] with your things, and when you go to squat outside, you shall dig with it, and cover your excrement [ṣê’ātekā]" (Deut 23:13-14). This could explain the paucity of evidence. Unlike the Roman period, few Iron Age sanitary facilities in Palestine have been uncovered in archaeological excavations. Two latrines were uncovered in Jerusalem during recent excavations. Two other stone seats were discovered in Jerusalem during earlier excavations. One of the latrines was excavated in a wealthy house in the City of David, and the contents of the cesspit were analyzed. The analysis showed that lime had been used in an attempt to sanitize the latrine by reducing bacterial and fungal activity. In addition to pollen from the food consumed, the faecal matter contained eggs of two human intestinal parasites, tapeworm (taenia) and whipworm (trichuris trichiura). The former can result from the consumption of undercooked or even raw beef or pork. The second indicates an infection resulting either from the ingestion of food contaminated with faecal matter, or from unsanitary living conditions in which people came into contact with human excrement. This could have happened if sanitary conditions were poor, or if the food consumed had been grown in gardens fertilized with human waste and had not been washed. Given that the final use of the latrines took place during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, it’s possible that the analysis reflects extraordinary conditions. Similar conditions are described in Ezek 4:12, where bread would have been baked using human excrement as fuel.

      However, it seems that poor sanitary and food preservation conditions were not just the result of the siege. In normal times, people, including the wealthy, suffered from intestinal diseases and parasites: "After all this, YHWH struck him in the bowels with an incurable disease. The days went by, and about the time the second year came to an end, his bowels gave out under the effect of the disease, so that he died in terrible suffering" (2 Chr 21: 18-19).

      The expression maštin baqqîr, which means "the one who urinates on the wall", always used to announce the future extinction of all the men in the family, reflects the way men relieved themselves. This could be done outside the house, in a corner, and must have contributed to the poor sanitary conditions described above.

4. Life Cycles

   Life in ancient Israel unfolded in cycles and revolved around certain events, both secular and cultic. These events, mainly related to the economy, were closely linked to nature, hence their cyclical nature. Indeed, the context of Israelite society was rural, whether agrarian or pastoral, and its laws and customs were formulated and shaped in this context.

   1. Birth

      From the biblical point of view, the main purpose of sexual activity was procreation, meant to provide offspring who would participate in the necessary economic tasks and produce heirs who would inherit and keep the family property. Consequently, a family with many children was the ultimate blessing (Ps 128:3). Procreation was the keystone of many biblical blessings (Gen 9:1,7; 12:2; 15:18; 26:3-4). This does not exclude the fact that sexual desire existed (Gen 3:16) and sometimes led to reprehensible behavior such as adultery, incest, rape, bestiality and homosexuality. To provide an outlet for sexual desires that could not be satisfied within prescribed norms, Israelite society tolerated secular prostitution.

      The Israelites regarded children as a blessing, and barrenness was compared to death (Gen 30:1). The birth of a child was celebrated by the conferring of a meaningful name, an act performed by the father (Gen 21:3; 25, 26) or the mother (Gen 30:6, 8, 11, 13, 18, 20, 21, 24). Another act of initiation of the baby into Israelite society was the circumcision of all male children (Gen 21:4). The Bible reports that it was performed with flint knives (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Circumcision was recognized as a mark of belonging to the YHWH-worshipping Israelite community.

   2. Marriage

      It was to ensure that one's possessions remained in the hands of one's family that people had children and formulated certain laws, particularly with regard to inheritance. Deut 21:15-17 clearly states that only sons can inherit, and that the first son must receive "a double share of all that he [the father] possesses". Several stories illustrate this custom, notably those concerning Ishmael and Isaac (Gen 21:10) and Isaac and his half-brothers (Gen 25:5-6). The stories describing the blessings given to Jacob instead of Esau (Gen 27) and to Ephraim instead of Manasseh (Gen 48:13-20) testify to the same attitude. Women inherited only in special circumstances. The fact that they had certain rights when there were no male heirs is evidenced by Leah and Rachel's claim for their share (Gen 31:14-16). The case of Zelophehad's daughters, which must have set a real legal precedent, is mentioned several times and in different circumstances (Num 26:33; 27:1-11; 36:2-12; Josh 17:3-6; 1 Chr 7:15). As the family had no male heirs, the five daughters (Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah and Tirzah) received a special dispensation to inherit the possessions (naḥălâ) of their father, but with the proviso that they would not marry outside the tribe. This was to ensure that the land would never be lost to the clan. The story of Job's three beautiful daughters, who received "an inheritance with their brothers" (Job 42:15), suggests that this was an ancient custom. The ostraca from Samaria, which contain the names of two of Zelophehad's daughters (Noah and Hoglah), strongly suggest that the biblical references have a basis in real life.

      Marriage was a means of protecting the family inheritance; it was done by arrangement between families. The fact that marriage was a socio-economic and political tool is well illustrated by the marriages arranged between different royal houses to secure their future relationships. Among ordinary Israelites, arranged marriages were favored within the clan, particularly between cousins (Gen 24; 28:1-9). Because of the short life expectancy of women and the risk of sterility, it was common to take more than one wife. In addition, a barren woman could give her husband a surrogate wife, as in the case of Sara's servants Leah and Rachel. When the husband died without a male heir, levirate marriage was practiced, as described in detail in the book of Ruth (see also Gen 38; Deut 25:5-10).

      The Bible doesn't mention any particular age for the marriage of women, and is vague about that of men. However, since a dowry was given to the bride by her father (Gen 29:24,29; 1 Kings 9:16) and gifts were given by the groom to the bride and her father (Gen 24:53; 34:12; Ex 22:15-16; 1 Sam 18:25), the exchange can be considered a commercial transaction. This is probably why divorce had to be in writing, with the wife being given a "divorce paper" (sēper kĕrîtût, Deut 24: 1-4 ; Isa 50: 1 ; Jer 3: 8). Israelite society recognized second marriages following divorce or widowhood, but the woman marrying for the first time had to be a virgin (Deut 22:13-21). Pre-marital and extra-marital sexual relations, especially adultery, were forbidden and punishable by death (Dt 22: 22-26).

      Not all marriages followed the norm. Some marriages were contracted by force, like that of Dinah, Jacob's daughter (Gen 34) and that of the women of Shiloh (Jdg 21:19-23; see also Deut 22:28-29). Some were mixed marriages, like Esau's with the daughters of two Hittites (Gen 26:34; 36:2) and Joseph's with the daughter of an Egyptian priest (Gen 41:45). Other marriages did not follow the usual formula, such as Samson's first marriage, where he, the groom, was involved in the negotiations (Jdg 14).

   3. Death and Burial

      Death was inevitable (Gen 3:19) and could come in many ways, peaceful or violent. The preference, of course, was for a peaceful death, at an advanced age, with a large family to perpetuate family traditions (Gen 25:7-9; 46:30). All the dead resided in Sheol, whose understanding by the Israelites evolved over time. In general, it was considered to be a pit (Isa 14:15) located in the depths of the earth (Ezek 31:15). Some scholars suggest that certain biblical references identify the grave with Sheol. Sheol had gates (Isa 38:10), a feature probably influenced by Egyptian and Mesopotamian conceptions of the underworld. The inhabitants of Sheol were sometimes referred to as rĕpā'îm, whose etymology is not very clear. Those who descended into Sheol could not return, but consultation of the dead (necromancy), although forbidden in Israel (Deut 18:11; cf. 1 Sam 28:3), was practiced to a certain extent (1 Sam 28).

      The deceased was buried as early as possible before sunset, a courtesy that extended even to criminals and enemies (Deut 21:22-23; Josh 10:26-27). Cremation was practised only in very special circumstances (1 Sam 31:12).

      Burial took place in various places, although archaeologically, only a certain type of burial from the Israelite period has been excavated. According to biblical tradition, people who died while moving from one place to another were buried by the side of the road, as was the case for Rachel (Gen 35:19-20; 1 Sam 10:2), Miriam (Num 20:1), Aaron (Num 33:39; Deut 10:6) and Moses (Deut 34:6). If there was a distinctive sign such as a tree, the deceased was buried there, as was the case for Deborah, Rebecca's nurse (Gen 35:8), and for Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:12-13). Being buried next to a tree could be linked to the "tree of life". Biblical traditions point to a cave, the Cave of Machpelah, as the burial place of the patriarchs and matriarchs (with the exception of Rachel). Others were buried in the family plot, like Gideon (Jdg 8:32), Samson (Jdg 16:31) and Asahel (2 Sam 2:32). Others were buried on their own land (naḥălâ) or on its boundary, such as Joshua (Jos 24: 30), Joseph (Jos 24: 32) and Eleazar (Jos 24: 33). This custom guaranteed the claim to the land. Embalming was not practiced by the Israelites, and only Jacob and Joseph are described as having been embalmed because, according to tradition, they died in Egypt.

      At the end of the Bronze Age (around 1200 BC), on the eve of the Israelites' appearance in Canaan, burials took place in caves, pits, cists or bench tombs. Some burials took place in ceramic coffins, jars and anthropoid coffins. During the Israelite period, the form of burial became standardized, and those who could afford it chose to be buried in a family burial cave located in a cemetery outside the city limits. Only the kings of Israel and Judah were buried in the capital. Some archaeologists identify a series of man-made caves in the City of David with the royal cemeteries of the House of David. Others suggest that a series of burial caves in the grounds of the Monastery of St. Stephen, north of Jerusalem's Old City, are royal tombs.

      The common Israelite burial cave of the Iron Age was accessed through a small rectangular entrance that could be blocked by a large flat stone. Two or three steps led up to the burial chamber, where one to three benches were lined up along the walls. It has been suggested that the layout of the tomb mirrored that of the four-room house. The body of the deceased was placed on one of the benches, which sometimes featured a recess for the head and a raised lip along the edge of the bench. In Jerusalem tombs, some benches have a raised horseshoe-shaped headrest. Some tombs had niches in the walls or depressions in the benches for oil lamps. Special pits - repositories - dug in the corners of the room opposite the entrance or under the benches were used to collect bones and other funerary objects. These included clay vessels, figurines, jewelry, weapons and more.

      This type of grave was designed for multiple burials and served as a family burial ground. Even when all the benches were occupied, they were reused whenever a new burial was to take place. The remains of a previous burial (bones, objects) were placed in the deposit, and a new burial was carried out on the cleared bench. This explains the expression so often used in the Bible: "he fell asleep / he was laid to rest with his fathers".

      Some tombs belonging to wealthy families were large, had more than one chamber and were adorned with carved decorations and tombstones. Some graves bore inscriptions on the outside or inside of the tomb, warning against break-ins or asking for the deity's blessing. Certain biblical references suggest that sacrifices were made and that ancestor worship was practiced to some extent. This custom is associated with the term marzēaḥ used by Jeremiah (16: 5) and Amos (6: 7). One of the funeral customs mentioned on numerous occasions was that family members, but also professional mourners, would lament the deceased.

      Numerous bench tombs from the Iron Age (1200 to 539 BC) are found throughout Palestine, and many of them surround Jerusalem. The use of this type of tomb continued for many centuries and was practiced, with some modifications, right up to the Roman period.

5. Bibliography
   • Bloch-Smith, Elizabeth. Judahite Burial Practices and Beliefs about the Dead. (Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 123). Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992.
   • Brothwell, Don R., and Patricia Brothwell. Food in Antiquity: A Survey of the Diet of Early People. New York: Praeger, 1969.
   • Frankel, Rafael, Shmuel Avitsur, and Etan Ayalon. History and Technology of Olive Oil in the Holy Land. English translation by Jay C. Jacobson. Arlington, Va., Oléarius Editions; Tel Aviv: Eretz Israel Museum, 1994.
   • Neufeld, Edward. "Hygiene Conditions in Ancient Israel (Iron Age)." Biblical Archaeologies 34 (1971): 42-66.