Abraham's willingness to offer his beloved son as a sacrifice to God, if asked, led to the development of a narrative and theology in Judaism with Isaac at its center. This development took the name Aqedah, a Hebrew word formed from a root meaning: to bind; for Isaac was "bound" as the lamb for the daily temple offering. The theme of the Aqedah could be described as follows: Isaac's offering is a truly completed sacrifice in which blood was shed, constituting a definitive atoning or redemptive act for all Israel. From then on the parallel was obvious between the redemptive sacrifice of Jesus and the theology of the Aqedah around the redemptive sacrifice of Isaac. But first, how did this parallel develop?

1. Theories Relating the Aqedah to the Death of Jesus

   Discussions around this parallel between the sacrifice of Isaac and that of Jesus have been going on for over a hundred years in biblical circles, particularly around the question: did the theology of the Aqedah in the Jewish world develop under Christian influence, or conversely, did Christians develop their theology of Jesus' sacrifice from the Jewish Aqedah, or did the two theologies develop independently, using a common source in the Gentile world? Related to these discussions is the question: when did this theology of the Aqedah emerge? Let us consider the documents at our disposal.

2. Contributive Elements in the Developing Story of the Sacrifice of Isaac

   It is difficult to reconstruct the development that occurred between the original narrative of Gen 22 and the full unfolding of the theology of the Aqedah, but we can point to certain elements across different eras.

   1. In the Abraham Story of Gen 22:1-19

      First, let us recall that the original story focuses on the character of Abraham, and it is his obedience that is praised, while Isaac plays a secondary role.

      1. Isaac is Abraham's uniquely beloved son (22:2,12,16: yāhîd, agapetos).
      2. Abraham was told by God, "Take along your son . . . and go to the land of Moriah." Abraham took along (paralambanein) two young men servants and his son Isaac (22:2-3).
      3. On arriving, Abraham said to the young men servants: "Sit in this place [kathisate autou] with the donkey; I and the little boy shall go on farther; and having worshiped, we shall return to you" (22:5).
      4. Abraham took the wood for the offering and laid it on Isaac his son (22:6).
      5. Isaac addressed Abraham as "(My) Father" (22:7: 'abî; pater).
      6. Abraham bound ('qd) Isaac and laid him on the wood (22:9).
      7. An angel of the Lord called to Abraham and told him not to lay his hand on the boy (22:11-12).
      8. Having offered a ram instead, Abraham returned to his young men servants (22:19); nothing is said of the return of Isaac.

   2. In Early Jewish Literature (before AD 100)

      For this period, we will include deuterocanonical literature such as Sirach, the book of Wisdom and 1 Maccabees, works written before the beginning of the Christian era, as well as the work of Flavius Josephus. Among the apocryphal writings, we will include the book of Jubilees (around 150 BC) and 4 Maccabees (around AD 50). The Biblical Antiquities of Pseudo-Philon are also considered (around AD 70), as they may have influenced the NT.

      9. Most of the references in the deuterocanonical literature (and the NT) are to a story about Abraham wherein he manifests his resoluteness and loyalty to God (Sir 44:20-21; Wis 10:5; I Macc 2:52; Heb 11:17-20; James 2:21). A reference to Isaac's virtue appears in 4 Macc 16:20: "He did not shrink."
      10. Jub. 17:16-18; 18:9; 19:8 make this the most severe of the ten trials of Abraham engineered by Mastema (Satan). This picture is harmonious with the dualistic angelic theology of Jub. and may not have been widespread.
      11. Mount Moriah, the place of sacrifice, is identified with Mount Zion (Jub. 18:13; see II Chron 3:1), the Davidic site of the future Temple (Josephus, Ant. 1.13.2; #226).
      12. The time of the sacrifice is set at Passover in Jub. 17:15 with 18:3.10
      13. Isaac addresses Abraham as "Father" twice in Jub. 18:6.
      14. The age of Isaac is given as twenty-five in Josephus, Ant 1.13.3; #227.
      15. Isaac rushes willingly to the altar (Josephus, Ant. 1.13.4; #232) and endures being sacrificed for the sake of religion (4 Macc 13:12). In Ps-Philo 32:3 Isaac says, "Have I not been born into the world to be offered as a sacrifice to him who made me?" (also 40:2: The one being offered was ready). 1 Clement 31:3 reports: "Isaac with confidence, knowing what was to happen, gladly was led as a sacrifice."
      16. Jub. 18:9 reports the discussions in the heavenly councils that lead to the staying of Abraham's hand, and the Lord Himself speaks to Abraham to stop him (18:11).
      17. Although Isaac did not die on the altar, there is a passage in Ps-Philo 32:4 ("And when he had offered the son upon the altar and had bound his feet so as to kill him") that some biblical scholars use to argue that Ps-Philo treats the sacrifice as complete, i.e., as an atonement for sin.
      18. In 4 Macc we see Isaac becoming a model for martyrs: "Nor did Isaac flinch when he saw his father's hand, armed with a sword, descending upon him" (16:20). The willingness of the mother of the seven sons to have her children die for God is compared to Abraham's willingness concerning Isaac (14:20; 15:28).

   3. In Later Literature (Targums, Midrashim, Mishna)

      What we have just seen already expresses elements of the theology of the Aqedah (e.g., nn. 14, 15, 17) at the end of the first century CE. But it is especially in the Palestinian Targums, written after the year 100, that this theology was further developed, and which has elements that are also found in the early midrashim, the Mishna and the Epistle of Barnabas, works of the second century. In short, with the Palestinian Targums we are in the environment of the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE.

      19. Isaac expresses fear in face of death.
      20. Isaac himself requests that he be bound (enhancing the idea of Aqedah and strengthening the parallelism to the bound lamb of the daily burnt offering [tāmîd]).
      21. Isaac looks up and sees the angels in heaven (and the shekina or glory of God). A voice in heaven explains the scene: There are two chosen individuals, i.e., Abraham sacrificing and Isaac sacrificed.
      22. The blood of Isaac is mentioned in Midrash Mekilta (Pisha 7, lines 79,81) and even the ashes of Isaac in TalBab Ta'anit 16a ("That [God] may remember for our sake the ashes of Isaac").
      23. In the targum on Job (3:19) Isaac is identified as the "servant of Yahweh."
      24. In the targumic elements of the Passover liturgy the deliverance of Isaac and the deliverance of Israel from Egypt are related. In the 5th cent. Pesikta de-Rab Kahana (Supp. 1.20) we read that because of the merit of Isaac who offered himself bound on the altar, God will quicken the dead.
      25. Ep. of Barnabas 7:2 draws a direct parallel between the sacrifice of Isaac offered on the altar and the self-giving of Jesus on the cross. In his homily On the Pasch Melito makes two references to Isaac bound (59, 69) as foreshadowing the death of Jesus; and in fragments 9-10 Melito points to several parallels: Both carried wood, both were led by a father - yet Isaac was released while Jesus suffered death.

3. Proposed NT Parallels to the Isaac Story

   Clearly enough, items numbered 19-24 accentuate the resemblance to the Jesus story, and one is not surprised to see the comparison that the Epistle of Barnabas makes between Isaac and Jesus (n. 25) in the second century CE. But our interest is limited to items numbered 1-18 that could have had an influence on the NT and the passion narratives.

   1. Outside the Passion Narratives
      1. References to the sacrifice of Christ

         First, there is 1 Corinthians 5:7 ("For Christ, our Passover, was slain"), which may reflect the sacrifice of Isaac at Passover (n. 12). Then there is Rom 8:32 ("He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all"), and John 3:6 ("God so loved the world that he gave his Son") insofar as Isaac is an adult who willingly accepts to be a victim. But all these parallels are only implicit.

      2. Influence on the Epistle to the Hebrews

         Some biblical scholars see in Heb 11:17-19 ("By faith Abraham, being tested, offered Isaac; he offered the only son...) the influence of the Aqedah, especially element n. 10 (testing). There would also be Heb 2:5-18 ("...For since he himself has suffered trial, he is able to help those who are being tested"). But all these parallels remain very subtle.

      3. Influences on the Last Supper

         In the book of Jubilees, Isaac's sacrifice was seen as having taken place at Passover, and his blood became a theme for midrashim. Now, the Synoptics present Jesus' last meal as a Passover meal, and both Mark 14:24 and Matthew 26:28 specify that his blood was "shed for many." But did Isaac's sacrifice at Passover already have an expiatory significance for the liberation of Israel at the time of the writing of these gospels? One can seriously doubt it.

      These few examples illustrate how subtle the proposed parallels remain. If one recognizes that there really is no Aqedah before the 1st century, then one must conclude that apart from the passion narratives there is no trace in the NT of a theology developed around Isaac.

   2. In the Passion Narratives
      • A linguistic parallel could be drawn between Mt 26:36 ("Jesus arrives with them at a place called Gethsemane and says to the disciples, "Stay [kathisate autou] here while I go and pray there." Taking [paralambanein] Peter and the two sons of Zebedee...") and items numbered 2 and 3 reported above, but the parallel is more with Abraham than with Isaac.

      • A parallel could be drawn between Jesus' warning to the disciples to pray not to fall into the power of temptation (peirasmos: Mk 14:38 || Mt 26:41 || Lk 22:40,46; see also Jn 16:11 and Lk 22:53 on the confrontation with the power of darkness), but again the parallel is more with Abraham than with Isaac.

      • In the prayer in Gethsemane (Mk 14:36; Mt 26:39; Lk 22:41) Jesus addresses God with the expression "(My) Father", just as Isaac addresses Abraham by calling him "(My) Father" (see items numbered 5 and 13). But how can we draw a conclusion when it is normal and natural for a son like Isaac to call his father that way.

      • Some draw a parallel between the heavenly intervention on behalf of Jesus (in Lk 22:43 an angel comes to comfort Jesus in Gethsemane; in Mt 26:53 the idea that he could have called upon 12 legions of angels is evoked; in Jn 12:28b-29 a voice from heaven is heard which is thought to be the voice of an angel) and the intervention of an angel on behalf of Isaac in Gen 22 (see n. 7) and the heavenly intervention to stop the hand of Abraham (n. 16). But in the OT and the apocryphal writings, celestial interventions are frequent and normal, and one has to push the imagination to the limit to see an influence of the Isaac story on these gospel passages.

      • John emphasizes Jesus' freedom in accepting his death (Jn 18:11: "The cup which the Father has given me, shall I not drink it?"; Jn 10:18: "No one takes my life from me, but I give it of myself"). Some draw a parallel with Isaac's willingness to be sacrificed (n. 15). Unfortunately, in the passion narrative this emphasis is unique to John, and the parallel is no better than that found in Heb 10:7, which quotes Ps 40: "Here I am, for it is written of me in the scroll of the book, 'I have come, O God, to do your will'".

      • Jn 19:17a writes: "Carrying his cross himself, Jesus went out and reached the place called the Skull". Meliton of Sardis draws a parallel (see n. 25) with Abraham who brings the wood of the offering and places it on Isaac (n. 4). Again, this parallel can only be drawn with John (in the Synoptics, it is Simon of Cyrene who carries the wood of the cross).

      What to conclude? The only plausible parallels with the passion narratives come from the account of Abraham and Isaac in Gen 22 where, unfortunately, the Aqedah and the figure of Isaac which will be developed later is absent.